C1 – UNIT 4

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY

Be made of (vp) to consist of or be formed from two or more things

Benefit rates (n) how much money the government gives to people who are ill, poor, not working, etc. depending on their situation

Booming industry (adj+n) a very successful industry that is increasing in size

Break up sth (v) to divide sth into different areas

Clutter sth up (v) to cover a surface or fill a place with things that are not tidy or well organised

Committed (adj) loyal and willing to give your time and energy to sth that you believe in

Constant pressure (adj+n) worried feelings all the time because you are always dealing with difficult situations

Cramped (adj) a cramped room , building is unpleasant because it is not big enough

Draw the line at sth (vp) to not allow sth

Dreariness (n) when sth is boring and makes you feel unhappy

Extensive experience/ knowledge (adj +n) a lot of experience or knowledge

Fierce competition (adj + n) very strong competition

Get your teeth into (vp) to start to deal with something with great energy and enthusiasm

Give somebody an/the edge over somebody (vp) to make someone slightly better than someone else

Give a false impression (vp) give somebody a wrong idea about what sth is like

A hotbed of sth (np) a place where there is a lot of a particular activity

In all fields (pp) in all areas of study or activity

In demand (pp) wanted or needed in large numbers

Kill a few birds with one stone (usually to kill two birds with one stone) (vp) to achieve several things at once

Right across the board (pp) affecting everyone or every part of something

Shrink (v) to become smaller, or to make something smaller

Stifling (adj) extremely hot and therefore unpleasant or difficult to breathe

Vast knowledge (adj +n) great knowledge

Workload (n) the amount of work that you have to do 

GRAMMAR REFERENCE 

EXPRESSING POSSBILITY, PROBABILITY AND CERTAINTY 

POSSIBILITY 

MODAL VERBS MAY MIGHT COULD 

• USE MAY, MAY NOT, MIGHT, MIGHT NOTOR COULD (BUT NOT COULD NOT) TO SAY IT IS POSSIBLE THAT SOMETHING IS TRUE, HAPPENS OR WILL HAPPEN BUT WE DON´T KNOW:

THE PHOTOCOPIER ISN´T WORKING-THERE MAY BE SOME PAPER STUCK INSIDE

• USE COULD TO EMPHASISE THAT THERE ARE OTHER POSSIBILITIES IN ADDITION TO THE ONE YOU ARE MENTIONING:

JOHN COULD ARRIVE SOMETIME THIS AFTERNOON. (OR THIS EVENING OR TOMORROW)

• USE MIGHT TO EMPHASISE THAT THE OPPOSITE IS ALSO POSSIBLE:

I MIGHT GO TO THE PARTY. (OR I MIGHT NOT)

• USE MAY, MIGHT, COULD+WELL/EASILY TO SAY SOMETHING IS A STRONG POSSIBILITY:

THE WEATHER MAY WELL IMPROVE BY THE WEEKEND.

I´D BETTER WRITE IT DOWN OTHERWISE I COULD EASILY FORGET.

• MAY, MIGHT, COULD+POSSIBILITY/CONCEIVABLY OR JUST MIGHTTO SAY SOMETHING IS A REMOTE POSSIBILITY:

MY BOSS COULD CONCEIVABLY CHANGE HER MIND AND GIVE ME A PAY INCREASE.

I JUST MIGHT HAVE TIME TO FINISH THAT REPORT THIS WEEK.

OTHER WORDS AND PHRSES TO EXPRESS POSSIBILITY:

• IT IS (JUST ABOUT) POSSIBLE THAT+SENTENCE:

IT IS JUS ABOUT POSSIBLE THAT WE WILL HAVE FINISHED THE PROJECT BY THE END OF THE YEAR.

• THERS IS A/SOME/A SLIGHT/LITTLE POSSIBILITY THAT+SENTENCE:

THERE IS A SLIGHT POSSIBILITY THAT THE WHOLE PROJECT WILL BE ABANDONED.

OTHER WORDS AND PHRASES TO EXPRESS STRONGER POSSIBILITY:

• IT IS QUITE/VERY POSSIBLE THAT+SENTENCE:

IT IS QUITE POSSIBLE THAT NONE OF OUR CLIENTS WILL BUY THE PRODUCT.

• THERE IS A GOOD/STRONG/SERIOUS POSSIBILITY THAT+SENTENCE:

THERE IS A STRONG POSSIBILITY THAT OUR OFFICES ARE GOING TO BE MOVED.

PROBABILITY

MODAL VERBS

• USE SHOULD TO SAY THAT YOU EXPECT SOMETHING IS OR WILL BE TRUE:

YOU SHOULD HAVE NO DIFFICULTY LANDING A JOB AS YOUR LEVEL OF ENGLISH IS SO GOOD.

OTHER WORDS AND PHRASES

• (VERY/QUITE/HIGHLY) LIKELY+INFINITIVE:  HE IS NOT LIKELY TO MAKE THE SAME MISTAKE AGAIN. 

• THERE IS LITTLE/SOME/EVERY/A STRONG LIKELIHOOD OF+VERB+ -ING/NOUN:

I´D SAY THERE IS A STRONG LIKELIHOOD OF GETTING A GOOD DEGREE.

• THERE IS LITTLE/SOME/ASTRONG LIKELIHOOD THAT+SENTENCE:

THERE IS LITTLE LIKELIHOOD THAT WE WILL MEET OURDEADLINE.  

EXPRESSING POSSBILITY, PROBABILITY AND CERTAINTY 

CERTAINTY AND UNCERTAINTY 

MODAL VERBS

• USE MUST (AFFIRMATIVE) AND CAN´T/COULDN´T NEGATIVE) TO EXPRESS THINGS THAT YOU FEEL CERTAIN ABOUT BECAUSE YOU HAVE EVIDENCE: THEY MUST BE MAKING A LOT OF MONEY WITH SO MANY CUSTOMERS.

HE DIDN´T KNOW WHAT WE WERE TAKING ABOUT, SO HE CAN´T HAVE READ OUR LETTER.

OTHER WORDS AND PHRASES

• BOUND+INFINITIVE: THEIR CARS ARE UNRELIABLE AND THEY ARE BOUND TO BREAK DOWN. 

NOTE: DON´T USE CAN´T OR MUSN´T TO EXPRESS POSSIBILITY, PROBABILITY AND CERTAINTY. 

NOTES ON MODAL VERBS: 

• TALK ABOU THINGS HAPPENING NOW, IN PROGRESS OR ARRANGED FOR THE FUTURE USE A CONTINUOUS FORM.

MAY, MIGHT, MUST ETC. + BE DOING: YOU MUST ALL BE WONDERING WHY I HAVE CALLED THIS MEETING.

• WE ALSO USE THE CONTINUOUS WITH MODALS OF POSSIBILITY (MAY, MIGHT, COULD) IN CONTRAST TO THE SIMPLE FORM TO EXPRESS A WEAKER POSSIBILITY¨WE MIGHT BE GOING OUT LAER. (WEAKER POSSIBILITY) 

• TO TALK ABOUT THINGS IN THE PAST USE MAY, MIGHT, MUST ETC. + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE (DONE BEEN, ETC.):

YOU MUST HAVE BEEN TIRED AFTER YOUR TRIP.

• TALK ABOUT ACTIONS THAT TOOK PLACE OVER A PERIOD OF TIME IN THE PAST, USE MAY, MIGHT, MUST, ETC + HAVE BEEN DOING: JOHN WASN´T IN WHEN I CALLED – HE MAY HAVE BEEN DOING THE SHOPPING.  

WORDS TO INDICATE CERTAINTY

TRULY, SINCERELY, GENUINELY, SURELY, ABSOLUTELY, CERTAINLY WITHOUT DOUBT

UNIT 3 CAMBRIDGE ADVANCED ENGLISH

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY AND GRAMMAR

GRAMMAR REFERENCE

THE PASSIVE

FORM

THE PASSIVE IS FORMED BY THE PASSIVE SUBJECT + THE VERB TO BE + PAST PARTICIPLE (DONE/EATEN/CLEANED, ETC)

USES

THE PASSIVE IS USED WHEN:

•                      THE SPEAKER DOESN’T KNOW WHO OR WHAT DOES/DID SOMETHING:  MY CAR HAS BEEN STOLEN

•                     THE SPEAKER DOESN’T NEED TO SAY WHO OR WHAT DOES/DID SOMETHING BECAUSE IF IS OBVIOUS FROM THE SITUATION/CONTEXT: THE LAW WAS PASSED EALIER THIS YEAR (OBVIOUSLY BY PARLIAMENT).

•                      WHAT HAPPENS IS MORE IMPORTANT THAN WHO DOES IT: THE CAR HAS BEEN REPAIRED.

•                      WHEN WRITING IN A FORMAL STYLE: YOUR TICKET HAS BEEN BOOKED AND CAN BE COLLECTED AT THE OFFICE.

THE PASSIVE WITH GET

•                     YOU CAN USE GET INSTEAD OF BE TO FORM THE PASSIVE, ESPECIALLY WHEN YOU WANT TO SAY THAT SOMETHING HAPPENED TO SOMEONE OR SOMETHING: HE GOT HURT PLAYING FOOTBALL (HE WAS HURT)

•                      ONLY USE GET WHEN SOMETHING HAPPENS OR CHANGES: HE GOT ARRESTED B Y THE POLICE.

•                      GET IS USED MAINLY IN INFORMA SPOKEN ENGLISH

THE PASSIVE WITH REPORTING VERBS

•                     THE PASSIVE IS OFTEN USED TO REPORT WHAT PEOPLE SAY, THINK, ETC. ESPECIALLY WHEN WE DON’T KNOW WHO SAID OR THOUGHT IT, OR IT IS NOT REALLY IMPORTANT:

• THE QUEEN IS THOUGHT TO BE RECOVERING FROM A HEAVY COLD. 
• FERNANDO ALONSO IS CONSIDERED TO BE THE BEST SPANISH FORMULA ONE DRIVER OF ALL TIME.

THIS USE OF THE PASSIVE IS COMMON IN NEWS REPORTS

WE USE THREE POSSIBLE PATTERNS:

1.                    HE/SHE IS SAID, THOUGHT, CONSIDERED, ETC. + INFINITIVE: 

 LIONS ARE KNOWN TO HUNT IN THIS AREA.

ELENA IS THOUGHT TO BE CLEVER.

VERBS THAT CAN BE USED WITH THIS PATTERN ARE: CONSIDER, EXPECT, FEEL, KNOW, SAY, THINK AND UNDERSTAND.

2.                    IT IS AGREED, PLANNED ETC. + INFINITIVE:

IT HAS BEEN AGREED TO CHANGE THE DATES OF THE MEETING

IT IS CONSIDERED RUDE TO INTERRUPT PEOPLE WHEN THRY ARE TALKING.

VERBS THAT CAN BE USED WITH THIS PATTERN ARE AGREE, DECIDE, HOPE, PLAN AND PROPOSE.

3.                    IT IS SAID, THOUGHT, CONSIDERED, ETC + THAT + A SENTENCE:

IT IS KNOWN THAT LIONS HUNT IN THIS AREA.

IT IS THOUGHT THAT ELENA IS CLEVER.

UNIT 3

ESSENTIAL VOCABULARY:

ADEPT (ADJ) GOOD AT DOING SOMETHING DIFFICULT.

ATTENTION SPAN (N) THE LENGTH OF TIME THAT YOU CAN KEEP YOUR THOUGHTS FIXED ON SOMETHING.

BE GLUED TO SOMETHING (VP) TO BE WATCHING SOMETHING ESPECIALLY A SCREEN, WITH ALL YOUR ATTENTIOM.

BE INTENT ON DOING SOMETHING (ADLP) TO BE DETERMINED TO DO OR ACHIEVE SOMRTHING

BE WELL ON THE WAY TO + V-ING (PP) TO BE MAKING GOOD PROGRESS TOWARDS A PARTICULAR GOAL.

CATCH YOUR EYE (VP) YOU NOTICE SOMETHING BECAUSE IT IS ATTRACTIVE, INTERESTING OR UNUSUAL.

COME TO TERMS WITH SOMETHING (VP) TO ACCEPT AND DEAL WITH A DIFFICULT SITUATION.

DEAL WITH SOMETHING (V) TO TAKE ACTION IN ORDER TO ACHIEVE SOMETHING.

DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY (N) AN ELECTRONIC SYSTEM THATR CHANGES SOUNDS AND IMAGES INTO THE FORM OF NUMBERS 

DISCRIMINATE (V) TO NOTICE AND OR ACT ON A DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO OR MORE THINGS.

EXCHANGE IDEAS (VP) TELLING EACH OTHER YOUR IDEAS.

EXERT CONTROL OVER SOMETHING/BODY (VP) TO USE CONTROL IN ORDER TO MAKE SOMEONE DO SOMETHING.

EXPRESS AN IDEA (VP) TO SAY OR WRITE AN IDEA.

FIGHT A LOSING BATTLE (VP) TO TRY HARD TO DO SOMETHING WHEN THERE IS NO CHANCE THAT YOU WILL SUCCEED.

HAVE AN APTITUDE FOR SOMETHING (VP) TO HAVE A NATURAL SKILL OR ABILITY TO DO SOMETHING WELL.

HAVE A FLAIR FOR SOMETHING (VP) TO HAVE A NATURAL ABILITY TO DO SOMETHING WELL.

INNOVATION (N)A NEW IDEA OR METHOD THAT IS BEING TRIED FOR THE FIRST TIME OR THE USE OF SUCH AN IDEA 

A LNK BETWEEN SOMETHING AND SOMETHING (NP) A RELATIONSHIP OR CONNECTION BETWEEN TWO THINGS.

MAKE AN EFFORT TO DO SOMETHING (VP) TO TRY TO DO SOMETHING PUTTING ENERGY AND TIME INTO IT.

MINDLESS VIOLENCE  (ADJ+N) VIOLENCE THAT HAS NO PURPOSE.

REPRESENNTATIVE (N) SOMEONE WHO SPEAKS OR DOES SOMETHING OFFICIALLY ON BEHALF OF ANOTHER PERSON.

SHOP ONLINE (VP) TO BUY THINGS FROM AN INTERNET WEBSITE.

SOLVE A PROBLEM (VP) TO FIND AN ANSWER TO A PROBLEM.

GRAMMAR REFERENCE

PAST SIMPLE AND PAST CONTINUOUS 

The past simple is used to describe:

• Actions or events in the past:
• I went to London last year.

• Actions or events which happened one after another: 
• I visited the Prado Museum and later went to a cafeteria. 

The past continuous is used to describe:

• Activities that were already happening at a momement in the past:
• While i was walking to college, i met a friend.

• Activities in which we don’t know the start or the fisnish:
• The music was playing and i was feeling happy.

The past simple and past continuousare often used to show that an action happened in the middle of an activity:

• We were watching tv when the phone rang. 

USED TO

We use used to, to describe things that happened regularly in the past but don’t happen now:

• I used to smoke but now i don’t.
• I didn’t use to exercise but now i do sports. 

*Note: Used to, is only used in the past. When talking about things that happen regularly in the present, use the present simple  with adverbs like usually, everyday, etc.: i usually drink wine with my lunch. He catches the same train every day. 

WOULD 

Would+infinitive and used to+infinitive: used to talk about things which happened repeatedly in the past but do not happen now:      when i was a small boy, my mother would read to me in bed. When she was reading to me my dad used to wah up the dishes. 

Would and used to are both used for past habits. There is, however, a difference between the two.

Would describes repeated actions but not states, while used to can refer to both repeated actions and states 

• On Sundays my parents would always take me to church.
• I used to hate going to church.

PAST PERFECT

The main uses of the past perfect: 

• To show that we are talking about something which happened before something that is described in the past simple: When we got to the station his train had already left. Compare this with: When he got to the station, his train left. This shows that the train left at the same time he arrived. 

• It is often used withtime expressions like when, as soon as, by, after and before:
• She started driving before he had fastened his seatbelt.
• When the storm had ended, people started to come out of their houses. 

• It is often used with the adverbs already, just and never:
• The theives had already escaped when the police arrived.
• He had never really eaten a good pizza until he went to Italy.

Past perfect continuous is used: 

• To indicate that we are talking about something which happened before something which is described in the past simple, but it:
• Focuses on the length of time: Mandy wanted a walk because she had been sitting all day. 
• Says how long something happened up to a point in the past:
• He had been playing for Arsenal for only two games when he scored his first goal.

VOCABULARY

Act on someone´s (advice) (vp) to do something because someone has said that you should.

Add insult to injury (vp) to make someone´s bad situation worese by doing something else to upset them.

Be in your element (pp) to be very happy because you are doing something you like to do and you are good at.

Be only natural to do something (adjp) to be normal or expected. 

Be up to something (vp) to be doing something. 

Believe wholeheartedly in something (vp) believe something completely, without any doubts.

Come round (v) to visit someone at their flat.

Drive someone mad (vp) to make someone feel extremely annoyed (informal).

Drop what you are doing (vp) to stop what you are doing, often in order to do something else. 

Go to incredble lengths to do something (vp) to try extremely hard to achieve something. 

Hold down a job (vp) to manage to keep a job.

Move on (v) to leave the place you are and go somewhere else.

Move out (v) to stop living in a particular home.

Nothing is too much trouble (idiom) doing everything you can to help even though it involves great effort.

Over the course of (a period of time) (pp) during. 

Positive outlook (adj+n) thinking that generally good things will happen. 

Process of trial and error (np) a way of learning the best way to do things using different methods. 

Prolong something (v) to make something last longer. 

Recount something (v) to tell a story or describe past events.

Refund (n) money returned to you because you are not happy with your purchase.

Regime (n) a system of government or control which is not usually approved by the people. 

Run for parliament (vp) to compete in an election or to be one of an elected parliament.

Set foot in (aplace) (vp) to enter.

Splitting headache (adj+n) a very bad headache.

Well intentioned advice (adj+n) advice given in order to be helpful but that does not help in the situation. 

Wind someone up (v) to annoy someone, often on purpose.